Serum

In live blood analysis, serum refers to the liquid portion of the blood that remains after the blood cells have been separated through clotting. It is a key focus in non-magnified blood observations because it provides valuable information about the biochemical state of the body. The serum contains proteins such as albumin and globulins, electrolytes like sodium and potassium, as well as metabolic waste products and hormones. Observing the serum in its natural state can help identify imbalances, nutrient deficiencies, or the presence of inflammatory markers.

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Dacrocyte / Poikilocyte / Teardrop

Strongly indicative of a “packed marrow”. May be the result of fibrosis (primary or secondary) or neoplasm (carcinoma or hematological neoplasm). May also arise where there is sustained or severe physiological increase in blood cell production (e.g. the expanded erythroid response to thalassemia). Less frequent tear drop forms may arise in other systemic disease. Ignore in fast-moving blood (vital force).

Elliptocyte

Iron deficiency or chronic disease. Multiple instances can indicate very severe hereditary pyropoikilocytosis.

Cabot's Ring

Cabot rings are ring-like or figure-of-eight loop-shaped inclusions composed of microtubule remnants from the mitotic spindle, or possibly nuclear remnants or abnormal histones. Can indicate B-12 anemia and related diseases, megaloblastic anemia, myelodysplastic syndrome, and lead poisoning.

Basophilic Stippling

Most commonly arises when blood cell production is stressed or abnormal, may be associated with dysfunction of enzymes involved in RNA breakdown (either congenital deficiency or drug induced).

Boat-shaped Cell

Although most closely associated with classical sickle disease (HbSS), boatshaped cells are also seen in compound heterozygotes between HbS and other abnormal haemoglobins.

Ignore boat cells in areas of blood movement, only consider if blood is static.

Agglutination

Agglutinates arise when antibodies attach to antigens on the membranes of adjacent red cells linking them together. The most common cause is “cold-reactive” IgM antibodies which do not cause overt symptoms. However, in some cases the effects may be clinically significant since antibodies may activate complement causing haemolysis, or the agglutinated cells can cause occlusion of small blood vessels in the cold (acrocyanosis). The clumped cells will sediment more rapidly leading to a raised erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR). Finally, the antibodies that cause cold agglutination may indicate an underlying malignancy (particularly lymphoma), or by acute infection.

Acanthocyte

Infrequent acanthocytes are often encountered in hyposplenic conditions, but where they are very frequent this may indicate an uncommon or serious cause which needs to be communicated to clinicians. Light or severe liver disease causing coagulopathy and spur cell (acanthocytic) anaemia.

Platelets

Platelets or thrombocytes react to bleeding from blood vessel injury by
clumping, thereby initiating a blood clot. Platelets have no cell nucleus. Platelets congregate around a wound creating a cap to stop blood flow out of the tissue (clotting). Platelets also contain cytokines and growth factors which can promote wound healing and regeneration of damaged tissues.

Platelets or thrombocytes react to bleeding from blood vessel injury by
clumping, thereby initiating a blood clot. Platelets have no cell nucleus;
they are fragments of cytoplasm derived from the megakaryocytes of the
bone marrow or lung, which then enter circulation. Platelets congregate
around a w ound creating a cap to stop blood flow out of the tissue
(clotting). Platelets also contain cytokines and growth factors which can
promote wound healing and regeneration of damaged tissues.

Eosinophil Cells

Normally transparent, it is this affinity that causes them to appear brick-red after staining. Eosinophils are responsible for combating multicellular parasites and certain infections in vertebrates. Along with mast cells and basophils, they also control mechanisms associated with allergy and asthma.

Monocyte Cells

Mechanically active cells and migrate from blood to an inflammatory site to perform their functions. In general, monocytes and their macrophage and dendritic cell progeny serve three main functions in the immune system. These are phagocytosis, antigen presentation, and cytokine production. Phagocytosis is the process of uptake of microbes and particles followed by digestion and destruction of this material. Monocytes can perform phagocytosis using intermediary proteins such as antibodies or complement that coat the pathogen, as well as by binding to the microbe directly via pattern recognition receptors that recognize pathogens. Monocytes are also capable of killing infected host cells via antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Vacuolization may be present in a cell that has recently phagocytized foreign matter.

Lymphocyte Cells

Lymphocytes help fight disease and infection. They are primarily involved in recognizing and responding to foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria, with two main types: T cells, which destroy infected cells, and B cells, which produce antibodies to target pathogens.

Healthy, non-active lymphocytes. An indication of no significant infection or intoxication.

Neutrophils

Neutrophils help heal damaged tissues and resolve infections. Neutrophil blood levels increase naturally in response to infections, injuries, and other types of stress. They may decrease in response to severe or chronic infections, drug treatments, and genetic conditions.

Neutrophils block, disable, digest, or ward off invading particles and microorganisms. They also communicate with other cells to help them repair cells and mount a proper immune response. The body produces neutrophils in the bone marrow, and they account for 55–70 percent of all white blood cells in the bloodstream.

Target Cell

The area of pallor contains a central accumulation of hemoglobin giving the appearance of a “target”. Look for macrocytosis that may imply liver disease; or if MCV is normal or low consider a hemoglobinopathy (HbC, D or E).

Micro-spherocyte

Severe membrane defects (e.g. hereditary pyropoikilocytosis). Toxin induced membrane damage: particularly Clostridium perfringens. Infrequent microspherocytes may appear as part of a spectrum of cells in many conditions with erythrocyte damage (e.g. fragmentation) or fragile production (e.g. megaloblastic states).

Spherocyte

Spherocytes are found in all hemolytic anemias to some degree. Hereditary spherocytosis and autoimmune hemolytic anemia are characterized by having only spherocytes. Where spherocytes are very frequent autoimmune hemolysis or hereditary spherocytosis should be considered.

Sickle cell

Indicates that the cells express the mutated gene for sickle hemoglobin (HbS), either in homozygous form (HbSS) or as a compound with another abnormal beta hemoglobin form. The number of these abnormal cells should not necessarily be considered an indicator of severity, but increased numbers of abnormal cells and polychromasia (or nucleated red cells) often occur during sickle crises.

Somatocyte

First exclude artefact (slow slide drying), then consider the number of these cells – occasional stomatocytes may arise in many conditions. However, when present in significant number stomatocytes may indicate significant acquired or inherited disease signifying one of a range of conditions (including liver disease, alcohol, or electrolyte imbalance). However, also consider a range of inherited conditions (see table) or look for the characteristic very large and oval-shaped often with a Y-shaped stoma that are seen in South East Asian Ovalocytosis.

S-C Poikilocyte

These cells are formed when sickle hemoglobin (HbS) is present together with hemoglobin C (HbC) to form a compound heterozygote disorder (HbSC disease)

Schistocyte (Fragment)

Fragmented cells are not found in normal blood. Sharp fragments may reflect “microangiopathic” damage – this form of fragmentation may therefore represent a medical emergency and should be reported immediately. More rounded fragments arise in significant dyserythropoiesis (such as severe myelodysplasia, membrane disorder or megaloblastic states), these are also important to diagnosis, but have a different origin.

Pappenheimer Bodies

Small numbers of Pappenheimer Bodies may be seen in normal blood, particularly within polychromatic cells. When they are present in large number look for hyposplenic features, or for pathological states that have iron-loading or aberrant iron metabolism.

Ovalocyte

Myelodysplasia, iron deficiency, etc. S.E. Asian Ovalocytosis is a specific disorder that results from structural and functional defects of the band 3 protein causing ovalocytes with a stomatocytic appearance. May indicate previous malarial parasites.

Keratocyte

In some (although not all) cases, the pathological process may be life threatening particularly if they are associated with disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) or thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) knowledge of platelet count, clotting and additional morphological features such as fragments is essential.

Macrocytes

Morphological evidence of any accompanying disease should actively be sought. Most frequently these causes are B12 or folate deficiency, myelodysplasia, or liver disease.

Irregularly Contracted Cells

Implies damage to hemoglobin within the red cell often accompanied by cellular dehydration and membrane damage; acute oxidative damage to red cells should be considered.

Hypochromia

The presence of hypochromia indicates defective production of hemoglobin. Most cases result from iron deficiency or thalassemia – other typical features of these conditions should therefore be sought. Less frequently, hypochromia reflects defective iron utilization (e.g. chronic disease or sideroblastic anemia). The presence of hypochromia is not of itself an urgent problem unless there is severe anemia; however, it important to highlight the condition since clinicians may need to request further investigation to determine its cause.

Howell-Jolly Body

Howell-Jolly Bodies most commonly arise when spleen is absent or spleen function is impaired (hyposplenia). Occasional Howell Jolly bodies may arise in physiological conditions.

Echinocyte / Burr Cells

Always remember that echinocytes may be an artefact of blood storage or of cells on the edge of a live mount slide (artefactual echinocytosis), so look at the condition of other cells on the film and determine whether the echinocytosis is patchy in distribution. Where genuine there will usually be a significant systemic disease present. This most frequently will be renal failure.

Graphene Hydrogel

Graphene hydrogel or nano gel is a water-based three dimensional (3D) graphene hybrid that readily absorbs water and swells to large volumes. Graphene hydrogel nanoparticles are outstanding drug delivery systems, owing to their unique properties that combine the characteristics of high water content with a very small (nano) size. They combine well with drugs, and most importantly carry lipid nanoparticles in even distribution, while enhancing the action of LNP targeting ligands.

Graphene Oxide

Graphene Oxide is a two-dimensional (2D) material composed of carbon atoms. Its bi-dimensional nature causes unique interactions with blood proteins and biological membranes that can lead to unusual effects like blood clotting and immune cell activation, when combined with mRNA, lipid nanoparticles, and more.

Graphene Hydroxide

Dr. Andreas Noack is a German expert in graphene nano structures. He describes these nanoscale structures as “tiny razor blades”. Only one atom layer thick, they are relatively wide and long. Fortunately we have observed their consumption by white blood cells, known as lymphocytes, in people with intact immune systems, these structure do deteriorate over time in a healthy, immunities-intact body.

Nano Materials, Micro-Tech

‘Nano Delivery Tube’ presumably delivering mRNA materials. 

Notice the vapor trail exiting to the right. Visible because the tube landed partially in higher pressure serum and a lower pressure air bubble.

Artifacts, Not From Blood

Glass fragment, from the edge of a slide, not from the patient.

Note that the fragment diffracts light, is crystalline in structure. And is it
not affecting, nor harming the surrounding cells.

Basic Cancer Indicators

Highly toxic double crystaline structures.

On the left is carbon or other dark element, perhaps lead.

On the right is a lighter element, such as aluminum or something more toxic. Could also be related to graphene hydroxide with graphene oxide.

The orbiting Burr cells also indicate high toxicity. The surrounding red cells are all highly affected.

Mottled serum on the lower right can indicate acidity.

This can indicate a loosened fragment of a cancer elsewhere in the body.

Lipids: Triglycerides / Cholesterol

Triglycerides. Note the barbs or macrophylla emanating from the edges – which makes it stick to other cells or vessel walls.

Easily mistaken for fungus or bacteria. Sticking to red cells, but not consuming them. Fungus or bacteria would probably consume adjacent red cells, causing a bleached or depleted appearance.

Also note heavy fibrin activity, indicating dehydration, and possible crystals formation.

Crystal Structures in Blood

Low to moderate toxicity crystal, probably carbon – the most common of blood solids contaminants. Unstained sample.

Notice that it is affected surrounding red cells, there appears to be an exchange of elements between them.

This was probably inhaled by the patient, which is of course immediately transferred to blood.

Fungus dots / non-differentiated

Stained, non-differentiated fungal colony, that is consuming surrounding cells.

Candida Albicans

Candida albicans. Notice the formation is similar to a bunch of grapes. Larger white cells are can be seen attacking the edge of the infestation. This person has healthier immune function than the one pictures above.

Must be differentiated from similar looking bacteria

Bacteria Strings

String bacteria, that could easily be mistaken for a parasitic worm. Bacteria usually shows green in color. Can be compared to mucous strings from lungs.

Atmospheric carbon crystal, not from blood.

Bacteria, non-differentiated

It’s important to remember that bacteria are always present in all areas of the body, and vital to proper function. Bacterium will mutate from so-called good concentrations or balance, to more aggressive concentrations when the body needs to fight off pathogens. Good bacteria can become bad or offensive. Bad bacteria can become benevolent, as the body creates the right balance to custom heal a particular pathogen imbalance.

Bacteria surround and consume pathogens. Along with fever, they can bake-out invading disease.

Non-differentiated, Gram positive intracellular bacteria.

Bacteria, differentiated

It’s important to remember that bacteria are always present in all areas of the body, and vital to proper function. Bacterium will mutate from so-called good concentrations or balance, to more aggressive concentrations when the body needs to fight off pathogens. Good bacteria can become bad or offensive. Bad bacteria can become benevolent, as the body creates the right balance to custom heal a particular pathogen imbalance.

Bacteria surround and consume pathogens. Along with fever, they can bake-out invading disease.

Gram positive, differentiated bacteria strings.

Ameba

Ameba in motion, moves very slowly, jellylike. No stain.

Parasites

In the event parasites are detected, or eosinophils are low or high, suggest to
the patient to take the Deep Dive Service. Symptoms of parasitic infections depend on where in your body you’re infected. Some common symptoms include:

  • Fever
  • Muscle aches
  • Fatigue
  • Nausea
  • Vomiting
  • Diarrhea

Fibrin

Blue light filter

Moderate fibrin activity. Almost no crystals formation occurring.

Crystals tend to be formed from fibrin. Also can indicate high dehydration,
acidity.

  • Ameba
  • Possible parasite egg
  • Heavy Rolleux

Vital Force

Excellent Vital Force.

Notice the tiny graphene hydroxide fragment. Also notice the non-ds-ifferentiated Roulleux, generally not seen where there is high vital force movement. Ignore teardrop-shaped cells when blood is moving fast.

Roulleux Formations

Indicating hibernation of red cells. 

Healthy, recoverable, Roulleux red cell formations. Cells are hibernating. Always locate and photograph the best quality sample for this analysis.

Stem / Stab / Band Cells

Stem cells will appear like red cells, but do not clot and display a large white center.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) emanate from bone marrow and can produce all the cells that function in the blood. Stem cells also can become brain cells, heart muscle cells, bone cells or other cell types.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) circulate under steady state conditions in peripheral blood to

i) to maintain a stem cell pool in remote bone marrow locations in the body and

ii) to “patrol” peripheral tissues and organs and, when needed, to respond to organ injuries and infections. The number of these cells increases in stress situations related to infections, inflammation, organ injury as well as after strenuous exercise.

Basophil Cells

Basophils release enzymes to improve blood flow and prevent blood clots. Basophils function to defend your body against:

  • Allergens.
  • Bacterial, fungal and viral infections (pathogens).
  • Blood clotting.
  • Parasites.
 

Basophil cells are unique in that they don’t recognize pathogens they’ve already been exposed to. Instead, they attack any organism they see that is unfamiliar to your body. Basophils destroy foreign organisms by surrounding and ingesting them (phagocytosis).

NLR Ratio

The Neutrophil-Lymphocyte Ratio (NLR) is a significant biomarker used in live blood analysis to assess the balance between neutrophils and lymphocytes, two critical types of white blood cells involved in the body’s immune response. Neutrophils are the first responders to infection or injury, playing a key role in the inflammatory response, while lymphocytes are responsible for adaptive immunity, including the recognition of pathogens and immune memory.

Odd Biologicals

“Odd biologicals” is a term used in live blood analysis to refer to unusual or atypical structures observed in the blood that do not belong to the typical range of red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. For example, the presence of abnormal cell shapes or unexplained inclusions in the blood could point to issues with cell regeneration, genetic mutations, or other underlying conditions. “Odd biologicals” could also refer to artifacts introduced by external factors such as improper blood collection techniques or contamination during sample preparation.

Serum

In live blood analysis, serum refers to the liquid portion of the blood that remains after the blood cells have been separated through clotting. It is a key focus in non-magnified blood observations because it provides valuable information about the biochemical state of the body. The serum contains proteins such as albumin and globulins, electrolytes like sodium and potassium, as well as metabolic waste products and hormones. Observing the serum in its natural state can help identify imbalances, nutrient deficiencies, or the presence of inflammatory markers.

Clotting

Clotting in live blood analysis refers to the formation of fibrin strands or blood clots, which occur when blood cells aggregate in an attempt to seal an injury or stop bleeding. Non-magnified blood observations can help identify clotting tendencies by looking for signs such as abnormal clumping of blood cells or the presence of fibrin strands in the serum. These clots may be indicative of underlying health issues like an inflammatory response, oxidative stress, or even blood coagulation disorders, including conditions such as thrombophilia or hypercoagulability. In some cases, excessive clotting can lead to poor circulation, increasing the risk of thrombosis, heart attack, or stroke.

Fungus with Bacteria

In live blood analysis, the presence of both fungal elements and bacteria in the blood can be observed as an indicator of infection or imbalance in the body’s microbiome. Fungus, such as Candida species, may appear as distinct forms like yeasts or hyphal structures, while bacteria can show up as clusters or individual organisms depending on the type. The simultaneous presence of both fungi and bacteria in blood can point to a compromised immune system or an overgrowth of microorganisms, often due to poor gut health, stress, or antibiotic use. Fungal and bacterial overgrowths are often linked to systemic infections, chronic illnesses, or imbalances like leaky gut syndrome.

Dehydration

Dehydration in live blood analysis is observed when the blood appears more concentrated than normal. In a non-magnified view, this can be seen as thicker plasma with blood cells that are more tightly packed together, often leading to a reduction in the volume of plasma compared to the cellular components. Dehydration can have serious implications for blood flow, as it reduces the blood’s ability to carry oxygen and nutrients to the cells. As the plasma becomes more viscous due to insufficient fluid, it can lead to sluggish circulation, increased stress on the heart, and reduced efficiency in waste elimination.

Ketones in urine

Ketones in urine refer to the presence of ketone bodies, which are produced when the body breaks down fat for energy instead of carbohydrates. This usually happens when there is a lack of glucose, such as during fasting, a low-carbohydrate diet, or uncontrolled diabetes. The presence of ketones in urine can be detected through a test and may indicate conditions like diabetes, starvation, or a low-carb diet. High levels of ketones can be a sign of a medical issue and may require attention.

Urobilinogen

Urobilinogen is a substance formed in the intestines from the breakdown of bilirubin, which is produced when the liver processes red blood cells. It is normally present in small amounts in urine. Higher or lower levels of urobilinogen in the urine may indicate liver disease, hemolysis, or other health conditions. Testing for urobilinogen can help assess liver function and overall health.

Bilirubin in urine

Bilirubin in urine refers to the presence of bilirubin, a substance produced when the liver breaks down old red blood cells. Normally, bilirubin is processed by the liver and removed through the bile, not found in urine. Its presence in urine can indicate liver problems, such as liver disease or bile duct obstruction. Testing for bilirubin in urine helps assess liver function and identify potential health issues.

Nitrites in urine

Nitrites in urine refer to the presence of nitrite compounds, which are typically produced when bacteria in the urinary tract convert nitrates into nitrites. The presence of nitrites in urine often indicates a urinary tract infection (UTI), as certain bacteria that cause these infections can trigger this process. Detecting nitrites in urine through a test can help diagnose a UTI.

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells) in urine refer to the presence of white blood cells in the urine, which can indicate an infection or inflammation in the urinary tract. Normally, white blood cells are part of the immune system and help fight infections. Their presence in urine is often a sign of conditions such as urinary tract infections (UTIs) or kidney disease. A urine test can detect leukocytes and help diagnose underlying health issues.

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) in urine refer to the presence of red blood cells in the urine, which is not normal. Their presence can indicate various health conditions, such as urinary tract infections, kidney stones, or injury to the urinary tract. A urine test can detect red blood cells, and their presence may require further investigation to determine the underlying cause.

Urine Specific Gravity

Urine specific gravity is a measure of the concentration of particles in urine, reflecting the kidney’s ability to balance water and waste. It is typically measured on a scale ranging from 1.000 (completely dilute) to 1.030 (highly concentrated).

 

Protein

The presence of protein in urine, known as proteinuria, can be an indicator of various health conditions. Under normal circumstances, urine contains little to no protein because the kidneys filter out waste and retain essential substances like proteins.

Healthy urine should have very low or no protein. If protein is detected, it may suggest kidney problems and should be evaluated by a healthcare provider. Regular monitoring can help identify potential health issues early.

Glucose in urine

Glucose in urine, also known as glycosuria, refers to the presence of glucose (sugar) in the urine. Under normal conditions, the kidneys filter glucose from the blood and reabsorb it, preventing its loss in urine. However, when blood glucose levels are too high, the kidneys may not be able to reabsorb all of the glucose, resulting in its appearance in the urine.

Finding glucose in urine is often a sign of high blood sugar levels, which could indicate an underlying condition such as diabetes. If glucose is detected in urine, further medical evaluation is recommended to determine the cause and manage any potential health issues. Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels is important for maintaining overall health.

Urine Clarity

Urine clarity refers to how clear or cloudy your urine looks. Clear urine is usually a sign of good hydration, meaning you’re drinking enough water. Cloudy urine might indicate that something is wrong, like an infection, dehydration, or even the presence of excess minerals or mucus.

Urine pH

Urine pH refers to how acidic or alkaline (basic) your urine is. It is measured on a scale from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral.
Acidic urine: A pH below 7. This can happen if you eat a lot of protein or drink acidic drinks like coffee. It may also occur if your body is dehydrated or fighting an infection.

Alkaline urine: A pH above 7. This can occur if you eat a lot of fruits and vegetables, or if your body is responding to certain conditions like kidney disease or urinary tract infections.

Normal urine pH typically ranges from 4.5 to 8. A balanced pH helps your body get rid of waste properly.

Microclots

The characteristic common to all graphene structures observed in blood is that they consume red cells, perhaps for their iron content, and in production of hybrid structures of various types and purpose.

These can be the beginnings of red cell clots or amyloid clots. We have proven that EDTA chelation therapy breaks up these clots and helps remove them from the body.

Urine Color

Urine color can give clues about your health and hydration. Here’s a simpler breakdown:

Clear to Light Yellow: Healthy and well-hydrated.
Dark Yellow: Slight dehydration; drink more water.
Brown or Tea-Colored: Could mean dehydration or liver problems; consult a doctor.
Red or Pink: Could be blood in urine (infection, stones) or from foods like beets.
Orange: May be from dehydration, certain medications, or foods like carrots.
Cloudy: Could be a sign of infection or dehydration.

Hybrid Parasites

Exceptionally large hybrid graphene worm, being futilely attacked by lymphocytes.

None of these structures have ever been observed by us before April of 2021. In some cases they appear to be hybrids of graphene, in other cases strictly biological, perhaps from sources that have hybridized them.

Red Blood Count

Red blood cells are responsible for carrying oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body and returning carbon dioxide from your body to your lungs to be exhaled. A normal RBC count helps detect various health conditions such as anemia or dehydration.

Uric Acid

Uric acid is a waste product produced from the breakdown of nucleic acids in the body. It is normally found in the blood and urine. High levels of uric acid are commonly associated with gout, a condition characterized by painful, swollen joints due to the buildup of uric acid crystals. Elevated uric acid levels can also occur as a side effect of treatments like chemotherapy or radiation therapy. Additionally, an excessive buildup of uric acid can lead to the formation of uric acid kidney stones, which are hard deposits that can cause pain, urinary obstruction, and other health problems if they move or become lodged in the urinary tract.

Non-fasting Glucose

A non-fasting glucose test measures the level of glucose (sugar) in your blood after eating. This test differs from a fasting glucose test, which measures blood glucose after an overnight fast. Understanding non-fasting glucose levels helps identify potential issues with blood sugar regulation, such as hypoglycemia (low blood glucose) or hyperglycemia (high blood glucose), and determine if medical attention is needed.

BUN / Creatinine Ratio

The BUN/Creatinine ratio is a blood test that compares the levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) to creatinine in the blood. It is used as a screening tool to help detect kidney disease and other health issues. The normal BUN/creatinine ratio typically ranges from 10:1 to 20:1. This ratio is a better indicator of kidney function than BUN or creatinine levels alone. A high ratio can suggest conditions like congestive heart failure, gastrointestinal bleeding, or dehydration, while a low ratio may indicate malnutrition or liver disease.

The BUN/Creatinine ratio calculator helps assess kidney function by comparing the levels of BUN and creatinine in the blood. Through this method, doctors can determine how efficiently your kidneys are filtering waste products from the blood and identify any underlying abnormalities.

Creatinine

Creatinine is a waste product produced from the normal breakdown of muscle tissue and the digestion of protein in food. It is filtered out of the blood by the kidneys and excreted in urine. While small amounts of creatinine are always present in the blood, high levels can indicate a potential kidney problem. The serum creatinine test measures the amount of creatinine in the blood to assess how well the kidneys are functioning. This test is commonly used to check kidney health, monitor chronic kidney disease, and track kidney function changes over time. It is often part of routine health checks or used when kidney issues are suspected.

Albumin

Albumin is the most abundant protein in the blood. It is produced by the liver and plays a crucial role in maintaining proper fluid balance in the body by helping to “pull” excess fluid from tissues back into the bloodstream. Albumin also transports substances like hormones, medications, and enzymes throughout the body. Low albumin levels can indicate liver or kidney problems, as the kidneys may allow albumin to leak into the urine when they are not functioning properly. A blood test can measure the amount of albumin to help diagnose and monitor liver and kidney conditions.

BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen)

Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) is a test that measures the amount of urea nitrogen in your blood. Urea nitrogen is a waste product formed when the liver breaks down protein. It travels through the bloodstream, is filtered by the kidneys, and is excreted in urine. If the liver or kidneys aren’t functioning properly, urea nitrogen may build up in the blood. BUN levels are used to assess kidney function and can help diagnose kidney disorders or monitor treatment effectiveness for kidney disease.

SGOT/ SGPT Affect Ratio

The SGOT (Serum Glutamic Oxaloacetic Transaminase) to SGPT (Serum Glutamic-Pyruvic Transaminase) ratio is a valuable metric used in medicine to assess liver health and identify potential liver issues. These enzymes, primarily found in liver cells, help in various metabolic processes. Monitoring their ratio can provide valuable insights into the functioning of this vital organ.

Bilirubin Direct

Direct bilirubin, also known as conjugated bilirubin, is a form of bilirubin that has been processed in the liver and attached to glucuronic acid. This makes it water-soluble, allowing it to be excreted in bile. Elevated levels of direct bilirubin can indicate various health conditions related to liver or bile duct problems. Diseases causing high bilirubin levels are classified into three categories: pre-hepatic (due to conditions like hemolytic anemia, affecting indirect bilirubin), hepatic (liver-related issues), and post-hepatic (due to blockages like gallstones or tumors in the bile ducts, leading to high direct bilirubin).

Bilirubin Total

Total bilirubin is the sum of two forms of bilirubin in the blood: direct (conjugated) bilirubin and indirect (unconjugated) bilirubin. Indirect bilirubin is transported to the liver, where it is converted into direct bilirubin by binding with glucuronic acid. The direct bilirubin is then excreted in bile. Elevated total bilirubin levels can indicate various health issues, such as liver disease, bile duct obstruction, or conditions like neonatal jaundice.

SGPT

Serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase, an enzyme that is normally present in liver and heart cells. SGPT is released into blood when the liver or heart are damaged. The blood SGPT levels are thus elevated with liver damage (for example, from viral hepatitis) or with an insult to the heart (for example, from a heart attack). Some medications can also raise SGPT levels. Also called alanine aminotransferase (ALT).

SGOT

Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT or AST) is an enzyme found in the liver, heart, and other tissues. A high level of SGOT released into the blood may be a sign of liver or heart damage, cancer, or other diseases. Also called aspartate transaminase and serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase.

Fungus

Sometimes found in urine particularly in cases of fungal infections.

Trichomonas

Trichomonas is a genus of anaerobic excavate parasites, and is estimated to be the most prevalent non-viral STI worldwide. Infection rates in men and women are similar but women are usually symptomatic, while infections in men are usually asymptomatic. Transmission usually occurs via direct, skin-to-skin contact with an infected individual, most often through vaginal intercourse. 160 million cases of infection are acquired annually worldwide.

Cylinder

These are tube-shaped structures formed in the kidneys, and their presence can indicate kidney disease.

Crystal

Certain types of crystals can form in the urine and may be a sign of kidney stones or metabolic disorders.

Bacteria

Their presence typically signals a urinary tract infection (UTI)

Erythrocyte (Red Blood Cells)

Their presence could indicate bleeding in the urinary tract or kidneys.

Leukocyte (White Blood Cells)

High numbers suggest infection or inflammation in the urinary system.

MXD # (Mid Range Count)

The MXD count tracks the actual number of mid-range immune cells (eosinophils, basophils, and monocytes) in your blood. This value can help identify inflammation, allergies, or certain types of infections.

MXD % (Mid Range Percentage)

MXD % measures the percentage of mid-range cells, such as eosinophils, basophils, and monocytes, in the blood. These cells are part of your immune system and help fight infections. An abnormal value may indicate allergic reactions or infections.

NEUT # (Neutrophil Count)

The neutrophil count measures the total number of neutrophils in your blood. High or low neutrophil counts can be a sign of infection, bone marrow issues, or immune disorders.

LYM % (Lymphocyte Percentage)

LYM % is the percentage of lymphocytes (another type of white blood cell) in your blood. Lymphocytes play a key role in fighting viral infections and regulating immune responses. Abnormal lymphocyte levels may indicate viral infections or immune system disorders.

LYM # (Lymphocyte Count)

The lymphocyte count measures the actual number of lymphocytes in your blood. A high or low lymphocyte count can indicate viral infections, immune deficiencies, or chronic conditions like leukemia.

NEUT % (Neutrophil Percentage)

NEUT % refers to the percentage of neutrophils (a type of white blood cell) in your blood. Neutrophils help fight bacterial infections. An increase or decrease in neutrophils can indicate infection, inflammation, or other health conditions.

RDW-CV (Red Cell Distribution Width B)

Similar to RDW-SD, RDW-CV evaluates the variability in red blood cell sizes, but using a different method. An increased RDW-CV is often associated with nutrient deficiencies or blood disorders.

WBC (White Blood Cell Count)

The WBC count measures the number of white blood cells in your blood. White blood cells help fight infections and protect the body from diseases. An abnormal WBC count could indicate infections, immune disorders, or blood cancers.

PDW (Platelet Distribution Width)

PDW assesses the variation in the size of your platelets. High PDW values may suggest certain platelet disorders or bone marrow problems, which affect clotting and bleeding.

RDW-SD (Red Cell Distribution Width A)

RDW-SD measures the variation in the size of your red blood cells. High RDW can indicate anemia, iron deficiency, or other blood-related disorders, helping doctors understand the cause of blood cell abnormalities.

PLT (Platelet Count)

Platelet count measures the number of platelets in your blood. Platelets help with clotting and stopping bleeding. Abnormal platelet counts can indicate bleeding disorders or risks of excessive clotting.

PLR (Platelet / Lymphocyte Counts Ratio)

The PLR ratio compares the number of platelets to lymphocytes in the blood. An increased ratio can be linked to inflammation or certain cancers, helping doctors monitor inflammatory diseases or immune responses.

MPV (Mean Platelet Volume)

MPV measures the average size of your platelets. Larger platelets can indicate an increased platelet production in response to blood loss or disorders like bone marrow conditions.

MCH (Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin)

MCH measures the average amount of hemoglobin inside each red blood cell. It helps assess the oxygen-carrying capacity of your red blood cells. Abnormal MCH levels can indicate anemia or other blood-related disorders.

MCHC (Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration)

MCHC is a measure of the concentration of hemoglobin in a given volume of red blood cells. It helps to determine if your red blood cells are normal or if they are more concentrated, as seen in certain conditions like spherocytosis.

HGB / HCT Ratio (Hemoglobin / Hematocrit Ratio)

The HGB/HCT ratio compares the amount of hemoglobin in the blood (HGB) to the total volume of red blood cells (HCT). It helps in identifying potential issues like anemia or dehydration. A balanced ratio is important for proper oxygen transport in the body.

RTC (Reticulocytes Count)

The reticulocyte count measures the number of immature red blood cells in your blood. This helps doctors assess your bone marrow’s ability to produce new red blood cells, which is important in diagnosing anemia and monitoring blood loss recovery.

MCV (Mean Cell Volume)

MCV refers to the average size of your red blood cells. It is used to help classify the type of anemia. A higher or lower MCV may indicate specific conditions, such as vitamin deficiencies or dehydration.

HGB (Hemoglobin Count)

Hemoglobin is the protein inside red blood cells that binds to oxygen and transports it through the body. A low hemoglobin level indicates anemia, which means you don’t have enough healthy red blood cells to carry oxygen throughout your body.

Normal Range: 13.8 to 17.2 grams per deciliter (g/dL) for men, and 12.1 to 15.1 g/dL for women.

HCT (Hematocrit Count)

Hematocrit is the proportion of red blood cells in your blood. It is measured as a percentage of total blood volume. Abnormal levels of hematocrit may indicate dehydration or other medical conditions.